RECENT ASSIGNMENT

Assignment 1 : Deconstruction Exercise questions
Choose only one question. 1000 word
1. Why is it that Aboriginal people who have 'mixed blood' are the ones who succeed in life?
2. Why are all Aboriginal people lazy bums?
3. Why don’t Aboriginal people take an interest in their own health?
4. Can we really allow the process of decolonisation? And what are the implications for white Australia?
EXAMPLE:
Why are Aboriginal people prone to drug and alcohol addiction?
The suggestion that “Aboriginal people are prone to drug and alcohol addiction” will be explored ideologically to uncover colonial discursive practices at play. These include: white privilege, stereotypical assumptions, and “Othering” as factors, impacting negatively on the social determinants of Indigenous health. This ‘question’ will be deconstructed to unearth the potential worldview and assumptions involved resulting in the framing of this question.
Stereotypical Assumptions and Mis-Representation:
This ‘question’ reflects Spurr’s (1993) discursive practices of surveillance and appropriation, suggesting that the commanding view of the person asking the question, as a “Westerner” assumes the “right to know” how things “are” in regards to Aboriginal drug culture and use. This question implicitly stereotypes an entire culture negatively through the use of colonizing discourse.
The “West” as a concept operates as a standard of comparison or criterion for evaluating other cultures in relation to the “West” (Hall 1997). This ‘question’ embodies the taken for granted “world view” of “Western eyes”, whereby categorisation or stereotyping is used to construct an image of Aboriginal life (Hall 1997). Whether the question actually reflects reality is of little concern according to colonial discourses, as “truth” lies with those with power, according to “Western” ideals (Hall 1992).
Research shows that Indigenous people are actually less likely to drink alcohol than non-Indigenous people, but those that do drink are more likely to consume it at hazardous levels through bingeing or chronic alcoholism. The 2004-2005 NATSIHS found that the proportions of people aged 18 years or older who had never consumed alcohol or had not done so for more than 12 months was 24% for Indigenous people and 15% for non-Indigenous people, however the proportions of people aged 18 years or older who consumed alcohol at a ‘high risk’ level were 8% for Indigenous people and 6% for non-Indigenous people (ABS and AIHW Catalogue 2008, cited in Thomson et al. 2010). These findings differ markedly from the assumption that all Aboriginal people are prone to alcohol addiction.
Conversely, the overall level of illicit drug use among the Indigenous population aged 15 years or older living in non-remote areas (28%) was more than twice the level of the general Australian population aged 14 years or older (13%)(2004-2005 NATSIHS and 2007 NDSHS, cited in Catto & Thomson 2008).
The higher level of illicit drug use among Indigenous people must be considered in terms of disadvantage in relation to the social determinants of health. The impact of colonialism and the claiming of Australia under the legal fiction of Terra Nullius, which lead to the systematic dispossession and incarceration of the original owners in missions and ongoing control of Indigenous lives by white people, has resulted in the Indigenous population being the most socio-economically impoverished group in Australia (Moreton-Robinson 2003). Both historical and contemporary issues remain active in perpetuating this reality, adversely impacting the social determinants of Indigenous health. The sense of dislocation from country, structural and societal discrimination resulting in impaired economic opportunities, institutionalisation and vulnerability are all key attributors. This resultant sense of powerlessness and loss of control over one’s own destiny in part drives people to want to escape the realities of their situation through substance use (Carson, Dunbar, Chenall & Bailie, 2007).
A study conducted by Mals et al. (1999 cited in Day, Nakata & Howells, 2008 p. 68) identified that Aboriginal males, in particular younger men in urban areas, suffered from low self-esteem and a pervasive sense of frustration, powerlessness and anger. These emotional issues were directly associated with colonisation, disconnection from the land and a legacy of social and economic marginalisation. Increased alcohol and other drugs were routinely used as a form of self-medication in addressing or tempering such emotions.
Social Determinants of Indigenous Health:
Inequalities in health status are not inevitable; they exist because of social inequalities. Conceptualising health from a social determinants perspective involves acknowledging the growing body of evidence regarding the influence of broader societal factors outside the control of individuals on health status (Marmot & Wilkinson 2003). They include factors such as education, employment status, access to capital resources, societal mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion, control over our own health, powerlessness, income, place, housing, infrastructure, family separation, land and reconciliation (Vickery et al. 2004; Wilson, Stearne & Staggers, 2010). These factors are all exacerbated by the exclusionary processes in place as a result of colonialism.
Recognised by WHO as a key social determinant of health, social exclusion can have profound economic and social consequences individually and collectively (Marmot & Wilkinson 2008). Institutional racism, widely prevalent in Australian societal structures, excluding the Indigenous population from employment, earnings, property, housing, education, skills and cultural opportunities, democratic participation, humanity, respect, fulfilment and understanding (Popay 2008, cited in Keleher & McDougall 2009), all of which impact adversely on health and well-being.
Colonial Discourses:
Colonial discourses, of which much of Australian societal norms are based (Schech & Haggis 2002), assert “Western” practices as superior to all else, denigrating traditional Indigenous practices as of little relevance, this is in despite of the numerous research studies conducted worldwide that support the use of such practices as particularly effective and pertinent (Burgess et al. 2009; Rowley et al. 2008).
Colonial discourse is evidenced in the above question where the notion of “Western” superiority is reaffirmed. Given that Aboriginal culture is portrayed negatively, whereby all Aboriginals are susceptible to addiction implicitly compares Aboriginal culture with its superior counterpart, namely “Western” culture, where no such issues presumably exist (Said 1992; Spurr 1993). Such discursive strategies work on the premise that all other cultures are inferior when compared with “the West” and is an example of ‘mis-recognition of difference’ (Said 1995), suggesting Aboriginal culture as being less sophisticated when compared with “Western” counterparts. The continual questioning of the integrity and legitimacy of Indigenous ways of knowing and whether their knowledge is commensurate with the “West’s” rational belief system remains an active problem, continually undermining the Indigenous psyche, impacting negatively on health status.
White Privilege:
In regards to the framing of this question, the cultural superiority of white people is assumed by suggesting that all Aboriginals are prone to drug and alcohol addiction and that as a result, Aboriginal people can only be assumed to be weak in character and individually responsible for their own predicament. What this question fails to acknowledge is ‘why’ drinking and substance abuse exists for a portion of this population group. This failure to recognise the inextricable link between Indigenous health and the processes of decolonisation (Anderson 1988 cited in Vickery et al, 2004, p. 21) demonstrates the “Western” position of privilege held by the questioner.
Power/Knowledge:
Knowledge is linked to power and as such those with power assume the authority of truth (Foucault 1985; Hall 1992). Coming from a white “Westerner”, this statement immediately attains authority and power, with the assumption that the statement is factual regardless of “the facts”.
The persistent silencing of Indigenous culture by pervasive structural discrimination and colonial discourse is enabled by the power of “Western” knowledge as the dominant culture in Australian society and its ability to be the definitive measure of what does and does not constitute knowledge (Moreton-Robinson 2003, p. 32). Colonial discourse is evident in the framing of the question, reflecting the worldview of the individual. While the above question holds a degree of accusation or blame towards Aboriginals for their ‘poor behaviour’ and ‘susceptibility’ to alcohol and drugs it also fails to acknowledge that white man was responsible for the introduction of alcohol and other illicit drugs into Indigenous cultures as a means of payment and control (Wilson, Stearne & Staggers 2010), reflecting the exclusionary processes of racist institutionalism.
Racism, Oppression and Discrimination:
Racism towards Indigenous people is deeply ingrained in Australian society and is characterised by a complex web of indifference and distortion. Concurrently a process of ‘Othering’ and stereotyping is also inflicted upon the Indigenous population with each individual being given the same characteristics, usually derogatory, hence the framing of the question above. Even government programs established to “close the gap” between Indigenous and non-Indigenous health status in Australia continue to undermine the Indigenous population through negative assertions regarding personal responsibility (Banks 2009; Productivity Commission, 2009), while failing to acknowledge the ongoing presence of institutionalised racism, discrimination, lack of sovereignty and detrimental effects of colonialism (AMA 2007; Ring & Brown, 2002). Is it any wonder that the pervasive sense of loss of control drives some Indigenous people to seek solace in alcohol and illicit drugs in an attempt to lessen the pain?
Racism, as a social construct, goes hand in hand with privilege, whereby the dominant social group wields control over the distribution and operation of power in society (Paradies 2007, cited in Baum 2008, p. 301). Since white settlement in 1788, the Indigenous population of Australia has been subjected to institutional, structural, economic and social oppression whereby traditional methods and knowledge have been categorized as irrelevant or inferior to “Western” knowledge. The detrimental effect on a person’s well-being and health status is well researched with the social determinants of health readily acknowledged (Marmot & Wilkinson 2008).
“Othering”
The stated question permeates the “West’s” view of the “Other”, implicitly suggesting inferiority (Mitchell 1992), whereby the essential characteristics of Aborigines are the opposite of the “West”, for example all Aborigines are “flagon drinkers and alcoholics” whereas Westerners are “connoisseurs of fine wine”.
People need to feel valued, appreciated, useful and able to exercise a significant degree of control over their lives. Without such opportunities, people become more prone to depression, drug use, anxiety, hostility and feelings of hopelessness, all of which influence physical health and well-being detrimentally. In addition to the negative health effects of relative deprivation, the actual experience of inequality and the stress associated with dealing with exclusion tends to have pronounced psychological effects and impacts negatively on health status (Galabuzi, 2002; Kawachi & Kennedy 2002; Marmot & Wilkinson 2008; Wilkinson & Marmot, 2003).
The impact of removing an Indigenous person from their environment, geographically or socially, has far reaching implications for the community as a whole. Colonisation of Australia by white settlers resulted in dispossession of land, loss of economic trading commodities, removal of traditional food resources and replacement with processed diets, including rations of alcohol and cigarettes, for the Indigenous populations. Such disconnection impacts heavily on the sense of worth and powerlessness of multiple generations and continues to impact on the general well-being of Indigenous people today.
The social determinants underlying the past and current health status of Indigenous Australians include a history of dispossession, racism and social exclusion. While colonialism and dispossession are the not the cause of all alcohol and illicit drug use among Indigenous Australians, such patterns are a response to this history.

REFERENCES:
• Australian Medical Association (AMA), (2007), ‘Institutionalised Equity: Not Just a Matter of Money’. Australian Medical Association Report Card Series 2007 – Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, accessed 13/08/2011 from: http://ama.com.au/node/3229
• Banks, G., (2009), How Can We Overcome Indigenous Disadvantage?, Presentation at Reconciliation Australia’s Closing the Gap Conversations Series, National Library, Canberra, 7th July 2009, accessed 13/08/2011 from: http://www.pc.gov.au/speeches/cs20090707-overcoming-indigenous-disadvantage
• Baum, F. (2008), The New Public Health (3rd Edition), Oxford University Press, South Melbourne, Victoria.
• Burgess, C. P., Johnston, F.H., Berry, H.L., McDonnell, J., Yibarbuk, D., Gunabarra, C., Mileran, A. & Bailie, R.S. (2009), ‘Healthy Country, Healthy People: the Relationship between Indigenous Health Status and “Caring for Country”, MJA, 190 (10), pp. 567 – 572.
• Carson, B., Dunbar, T., Chenall, R.D. & Bailie, R. (Eds), (2007), Social Determinants of Indigenous Health, Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest, NSW.
• Catto, M., & Thomson, N. (2008), Review of illicit drug use among Indigenous peoples. Retrieved 10/08/2011 from http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/health-risks/illicit-drugs/reviews/our-review
• Day, A., Nakata, M. & Howells, K. (Eds), (2008), Anger and Indigenous Men: Understanding and Responding to Violent Behaviour, The Federation Press, Leichhardt, NSW.
• Foucault, M (1985), The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, Tavistock Publications, London.
• Galabuzi G. (2002), Social Exclusion, A paper and presentation given at The Social Determinants of Health Across the Life-Span Conference, Toronto, November 2002.
• Hall, S. (1992), -The West and the Rest: discourses and power- in Schech, S. & Haggis, J. (2002), Development: A Cultural Studies Reader, Blackwell, London.
• Hall, S. (1997), “Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices” in Schech, S. and Haggis, J. (2002) Development: A Cultural Studies Reader, Blackwell, London.
• Kawachi, I., and Kennedy, B.P., (1997), Health and social cohesion: why care about income inequality?, British Medical Journal, 314.7086, pp.1037. Accessed 10/08/2011. http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/314/7086/1037
• Keleher, H. & MacDougall, C. (Eds), (2009), Understanding Health: A Determinants Approach, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne, Victoria.
• Marmot M. & Wilkinson, R., Eds, (2008), Social determinants of health, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
• Mitchell, T. (1992), -Orientalism and the Exhibitionary Order- in Nicholas B. Dirks, Ed. Colonialism and Culture, Anne Arbour, University of Michigan Press
• Moreton-Robinson, A. (2003), I Still Call Australia Home: Indigenous Belonging and Place in a White Postcolonizing Society, Chapter 1, pp. 23 – 32 in Ahmed, S., Castada, C., Fortier, A. (2003), Uprooting/Regroundings: Questions of Home and Migration, Oxford Berg Publishers, Electronic resource.
• Productivity Commission (2009), Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage, accessed 13/08/2011 from: http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/90132/02-overview.pdf
• Ring I.T. & Brown N. (2002), ‘Indigenous health: chronically inadequate responses to damning statistics’. MJA, 177 (2), , pp. 629-631, accessed 13/08/2011 from:
https://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/177_11_021202/rin10435_fm.pdf
• Rowley, K.G., O’Dea K., Anderson, I.; McDermott, R., Saraswati, K., Tilmout, R., Roberts, I., Fitz, J., Wang, Z., Jenkins, A., Best, J.D., Wang, Zh. & Brown, A. (2008), ‘Lower than Expected Morbidity and Mortality for an Australian Aboriginal Population: 10 year follow-up in a decentralised community, MJA, 188 (5), pp. 283-287.
• Said, E. (1995) Orientalism, Penguin, London.
• Schech, S. & Haggis, J. (2002) Development: A Cultural Studies Reader, Blackwell, London.
• Spurr, D. (1993), The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration, Duke University Press, Durham.
• Thomson N., MacRae, A., Burns, J., Catto, M., Debuyst. O., Krom, I., Midford, R., Potter, C., Ride, K., Stumpers, S., Urquhart, B. (2010), Overview of Australian Indigenous health status, April 2010. Perth, WA: Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet.
• Vickery, J., Faulkhead, S., Adams, K. & Clarke, A. (2004), ‘Indigenous Insights into Oral History, Social Determinants and Decolonisation, Chapter 2 in I. Anderson, F. Baum & M. Bentley (eds), Beyond Bandaids: Exploring the Underlying Social Determinants of Aboriginal Health. Papers from the Social Determinants of Aboriginal Health Workshop, Adelaide, July 2004, Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal Health, Darwin.
• Wilkinson, R. & Marmot, M. Eds, (2003), Social determinants of health: the solid facts, 2nd edn, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen.
• Wilson M., Stearne A., Gray D., & Saggers, S. (2010), ‘The harmful use of alcohol amongst Indigenous Australians,’ Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet website. Retrieved 10/08/2011 from: http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/alcoholuse_review
Tips for the Deconstruction Exercise
• Do not answer the question.
• Break the question down into words and analyse the words used.
• What is the question implying?
• What assumptions does the question make?
• Does the question echo stereotypes?
• Does the question exhibit a lack of understanding?
• Please look carefully at the example in the Topic details on pages 6-7.
• Please read the Example paper on the FLO site
• As you’ve read in the example paper in response to a question regarding Aboriginal people and alcohol and drug abuse A critical approach is not inviting you to discuss substance abuse issues in Aboriginal Australia, it is asking you to examine homogenous approaches to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. A critical approach will analyse the use of the word ‘prone’ as one that suggests substance abuse is somehow inherent in Indigenous Australians. Exhibit your understanding of social and economic exclusion and the subsequent impacts on mental health in Aboriginal communities. Are Aboriginal people who abuse substances just making poor choices or do social determinants come into play?
Tips for the Deconstruction Exercise
• Do not answer the question.
• Break the question down into words and analyse the words used.
• What is the question implying?
• What assumptions does the question make?
• Does the question echo stereotypes?
• Does the question exhibit a lack of understanding?
• Please look carefully at the example in the Topic details on pages 6-7.
• Please read the Example paper on the FLO site
• As you’ve read in the example paper in response to a question regarding Aboriginal people and alcohol and drug abuse A critical approach is not inviting you to discuss substance abuse issues in Aboriginal Australia, it is asking you to examine homogenous approaches to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. A critical approach will analyse the use of the word ‘prone’ as one that suggests substance abuse is somehow inherent in Indigenous Australians. Exhibit your understanding of social and economic exclusion and the subsequent impacts on mental health in Aboriginal communities. Are Aboriginal people who abuse substances just making poor choices or do social determinants come into play?
Tips for the Deconstruction Exercise
• Do not answer the question.
• Break the question down into words and analyse the words used.
• What is the question implying?
• What assumptions does the question make?
• Does the question echo stereotypes?
• Does the question exhibit a lack of understanding?
• Please look carefully at the example in the Topic details on pages 6-7.
• Please read the Example paper on the FLO site
• As you’ve read in the example paper in response to a question regarding Aboriginal people and alcohol and drug abuse A critical approach is not inviting you to discuss substance abuse issues in Aboriginal Australia, it is asking you to examine homogenous approaches to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. A critical approach will analyse the use of the word ‘prone’ as one that suggests substance abuse is somehow inherent in Indigenous Australians. Exhibit your understanding of social and economic exclusion and the subsequent impacts on mental health in Aboriginal communities. Are Aboriginal people who abuse substances just making poor choices or do social determinants come into play?

Assignment 1: Deconstruction Exercise -1000 words

Quality
Key components of this assignment
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Student ID:
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Introduction
The introduction shows a sound understanding of the task and provides a clear outline of the scope of the paper.

Logical development & subject relevance
The paper follows a logical structure and ideas are presented clearly. The material is well organised and sequenced. The arguments are strong and clear with coherent themes. Direct and to the point with little divergence. No superfluous information.

Level of analysis
The paper demonstrates a critical approach with a clear understanding of the Social Determinants of Indigenous Health.

Understanding of topic
Well argued. All main issues understood, explored and evaluated and conclusion justified. The chosen question is thoroughly analysed.

Conclusion
Good concluding section which draws together the various points made. A summary of the main points and relevance of these points is included.

Referencing and use of sources
Use of reputable academic sources and literature both primary and secondary sources. Evidence of wider supporting reading. Sources acknowledged appropriately using Harvard referencing guidelines. Full list of references included using Harvard referencing, easy to trace.

Style, grammar, spelling and language
Clear and well constructed sentences. Well written paragraphs that contain a single or a few themes. Well-organised writing with appropriate spelling and academic language. A pleasure to read and easy to follow.

Overall presentation & length
Neat, legible type, appropriate spacing and layout, use of headings and subheadings where appropriate. Name or ID on every page with cover sheet. Reasonable length +/- 10% word count.
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